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spørsmålet		svaret
What is the primary focus of Contrastive Linguistics? begynn å lære		Contrastive Linguistics systematically compares languages to identify their similarities and differences at every level of linguistic structure.
Name three levels of linguistic structure studied in Contrastive Linguistics. begynn å lære		Phonology, morphology, syntax.
What are the two main approaches to Contrastive Linguistics? begynn å lære		Theoretical and applied.
What is the purpose of the theoretical approach in Contrastive Linguistics? begynn å lære		To expand linguistic theory through cross-linguistic comparisons and focus on abstract models and linguistic universals.
How is the applied approach in Contrastive Linguistics used? begynn å lære		To solve practical issues in language-related fields, such as language teaching and translation.
What is a minimal pair in phonology? begynn å lære		Two words that differ by only one sound in the same position and have different meanings.
Give an example of a minimal pair in English. begynn å lære		/pæt/ ("pat") vs. /bæt/ ("bat").
What are allophones? begynn å lære		Phonetically distinct variants of the same phoneme that do not change meaning.
What is phonotactics? begynn å lære		The rules governing permissible sound combinations in a language.
How does English handle word stress compared to Polish? begynn å lære		English has variable stress (e.g., "photograph" as noun vs. verb), while Polish has fixed penultimate stress (e.g., "kochamy").
What is a key difference in vowel systems between English and Polish? begynn å lære		English has more diphthongs, while Polish includes nasal vowels.
What is the primary assessment method for the Contrastive Linguistics course? begynn å lære		Final written exam (100%), including multiple-choice and open-ended questions.
What are the four main topics covered in Month 1 of the course? begynn å lære		Phonological differences, morphological categories and classification, borrowings, and language contact.
What is the focus of Month 2 in the course structure? begynn å lære		Lexicalization, semantic and syntactic structures in contrastive perspective, pragmatics.
What is the role of Contrastive Linguistics in language learning? begynn å lære		Predicts learner errors caused by L1 interference and enhances awareness of cross-linguistic patterns.
How does Contrastive Linguistics contribute to translation? begynn å lære		Ensures semantic and pragmatic accuracy and preserves style, register, and culturally specific expressions.
What is Error Analysis in Contrastive Linguistics? begynn å lære		Examination of learner errors to understand underlying causes, such as L1 interference or overgeneralization.
What is Universal Grammar in the context of Contrastive Linguistics? begynn å lære		Exploration of innate grammatical principles across languages.
What is an example of a phonological error Polish speakers might make in English? begynn å lære		Substituting /θ/ or /ð/ with [t] or [d], as in "think" pronounced as [tɪŋk].
What is the phenomenon where Polish speakers might insert vowels to break up consonant clusters in English? begynn å lære		Phonotactic adaptation.
What are the three main morphological classifications of languages? begynn å lære		Analytic (Isolating), Synthetic (Fusional), Agglutinative.
What is a morpheme? begynn å lære		The smallest unit of meaning or grammatical function in a language.
What is the difference between free and bound morphemes? begynn å lære		Free morphemes can stand alone (e.g., "dog"), while bound morphemes must attach to a root (e.g., "-s").
What are the two main types of morphemes? begynn å lære		Lexical morphemes (carry meaning) and grammatical morphemes (serve grammatical purposes).
What is the difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes? begynn å lære		Derivational morphemes change meaning or word class (e.g., "-ness"), while inflectional morphemes modify a word to indicate grammatical information (e.g., "-s" for plural).
What are the four types of affixation? begynn å lære		Prefixation, suffixation, infixation, circumfixation.
What is compounding in morphology? begynn å lære		Combining free morphemes into one word (e.g., "laptop").
What is blending in morphology? begynn å lære		Combining parts of two or more words (e.g., "smog" from "smoke" + "fog").
What is reduplication? begynn å lære		Repeating all or part of a morpheme (e.g., "bye-bye").
What is conversion (zero derivation)? begynn å lære		Changing a word's grammatical category without adding a morpheme (e.g., "text" as a noun and verb).
What type of morphology does English primarily exhibit? begynn å lære		Analytic/weakly inflectional.
What type of morphology does Polish primarily exhibit? begynn å lære		Synthetic/highly inflectional.
What are the inflectional categories for nouns in Polish? begynn å lære		Case (7), number, gender.
What are the inflectional categories for verbs in Polish? begynn å lære		Person, number, gender, tense, aspect.
What is the primary difference in transparency of meaning between English and Polish morphology? begynn å lære		Polish morphology is usually more transparent and regular.
What role does inflection play in Polish syntax? begynn å lære		Inflection carries grammatical relations, allowing for flexible word order.
Is the affix "-ly" in English inflectional or derivational? begynn å lære		Derivational.
What are the two meanings of the prefix "dis-" in English? begynn å lære		Negation/reversal (e.g., "disconnect") and intensification (e.g., "disgraceful").
What morphological process is involved in the word "exam" (from "examination")? begynn å lære		Clipping.
Provide an example of compounding in Polish. begynn å lære		"piorunochron" (lightning conductor, from "piorun" + "chronić").
What is lexicalization? begynn å lære		The process whereby a conceptual meaning or semantic content becomes encoded in a single lexical item (word or idiom).
How does English typically express aspect? begynn å lære		Periphrastically (e.g., "was reading," "has eaten").
How does Polish typically lexicalize aspect? begynn å lære		Through verb prefixes (e.g., "czytać" → "przeczytać").
How is motion and direction encoded in English? begynn å lære		Path is encoded in particles (e.g., "run out," "go in").
How is motion and direction lexicalized in Polish? begynn å lære		Path is lexicalized through verb prefixes (e.g., "wybiec," "dojść").
What is the difference in lexicalizing degree and evaluation between English and Polish? begynn å lære		English is often analytic (e.g., "more interesting"), while Polish encodes it morphologically (e.g., "duży" → "największy").
How is negation lexicalized in English? begynn å lære		Irregular negative prefixes (e.g., "un-," "in-," "dis-").
How is negation lexicalized in Polish? begynn å lære		Highly productive and regular negation with "nie-" (e.g., "niesprawiedliwy").
What is the difference in category change between English and Polish? begynn å lære		English uses conversion (e.g., "text" → "to text"), while Polish requires overt morphology (e.g., "czytać" → "czytanie").
How are semantic roles expressed in English? begynn å lære		By prepositions (e.g., "with," "to," "for").
How are semantic roles encoded in Polish? begynn å lære		In case morphology (e.g., "dom" → "domu" → "domem").
What are satellite-framed languages? begynn å lære		Languages where path is encoded in particles or prefixes (e.g., English, Polish, German).
What are verb-framed languages? begynn å lære		Languages where path is encoded in the verb (e.g., Spanish, Japanese, French).
What is semantic structure? begynn å lære		The organization of meaning components within a linguistic unit, including their relations and internal hierarchy.
What is the role of thematic roles in semantic structures? begynn å lære		They describe the roles participants play in an event (e.g., AGENT, THEME, EXPERIENCER).
What is Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM)? begynn å lære		A theory proposing that all languages share a small set of semantic primes (irreducible meanings) that can explicate complex meanings.
Who proposed the NSM theory? begynn å lære		Anna Wierzbicka.
What are semantic primes in NSM? begynn å lære		Irreducible meanings (e.g., "I," "you," "want," "know," "do") that are universal across languages.
What is WordNet? begynn å lære		A lexical database showing how words are connected by meaning in English.
What is plWordNet? begynn å lære		A lexical database for Polish, similar to WordNet, showing semantic connections between words.
What is a borrowing in linguistics? begynn å lære		A linguistic unit taken from a donor language and incorporated into a recipient language due to language contact.
What are some examples of English borrowings in Polish related to gaming? begynn å lære		"zlevelować postać" (to level up a character), "dive’ować bota" (to dive a bot).
What are the four main reasons for borrowing? begynn å lære		Lexical gaps, prestige/social status, cultural contact, bilingualism/code-switching.
What are the two levels of integration for borrowings in Polish? begynn å lære		Low integration (unchanged forms) and higher integration (inflectional integration).
Provide an example of a low-integration borrowing in Polish. begynn å lære		"support," "deadline," "server."
Provide an example of a higher-integration borrowing in Polish. begynn å lære		"supportem," "serverów," "deadlineem."
How does Polish adapt English borrowings morphologically? begynn å lære		By deriving verbs using -ować (e.g., "backupować," "targetować").
How does Polish handle aspect in borrowings? begynn å lære		By adding verbal prefixes to signal aspect and completion (e.g., "zlevelować," "zdeployować").
What are hybrid constructions in the context of borrowings? begynn å lære		Combinations of English lexemes with Polish syntax (e.g., "Jesteśmy na callu z klientem").
What is a structural calque? begynn å lære		A direct translation of a foreign phrase or structure (e.g., "pozostaniemy w kontakcie" ← "stay in touch").
What is semantic borrowing? begynn å lære		When meanings shift under the influence of another language (e.g., "dokładnie" as a discourse marker ← "exactly").
What sociolinguistic factors influence the outcome of language contact? begynn å lære		Language prestige, speaker attitudes, degree of bilingualism, domains of use.
What are pidgins and creoles? begynn å lære		Pidgins are simplified contact languages, while creoles are pidgins that have developed into full languages (e.g., Haitian Creole).
What are some examples of hybrid constructions in Polish? begynn å lære		"Złapiemy się potem na evencie," "Ten plik się nie uploaduje."
What is the role of bilingualism in borrowing? begynn å lære		Bilingual speakers gradually introduce borrowings through code-switching.
What domains are most affected by English borrowings in Polish? begynn å lære		IT, business, gaming, social media.
What is the purpose of using -ować in Polish borrowings? begynn å lære		To derive verbs from English bases (e.g., "backupować dane").
What is an example of a semantic shift in Polish due to English influence? begynn å lære		"Ten build jest solidny" (This build is solid), "Ten projekt dowozi" (This project delivers).
How does language contact drive language change? begynn å lære		Through the introduction of new words, meanings, and structures, influenced by sociolinguistic factors.
What is the difference between a pidgin and a creole? begynn å lære		A pidgin is a simplified contact language, while a creole is a pidgin that has become a full, stable language.
What is contrastive syntax? begynn å lære		The comparison of languages to identify structural similarities/differences, transfer effects, translation difficulties, and language-specific grammatical patterns.
What are the three main approaches to comparing syntax? begynn å lære		Contrastive Linguistics, Linguistic Typology, Generative Syntax.
What are some key contrastive differences between languages? begynn å lære		Basic word order, head directionality, subject expression, question formation, inversion, case and agreement, information structure, word-order flexibility.
What are the three most common basic word orders? begynn å lære		SVO, SOV, VSO.
What is head directionality? begynn å lære		The position of the head (main element) in a phrase relative to its dependents (e.g., verb in a verb phrase, noun in a noun phrase).
What is a null subject (pro-drop) language? begynn å lære		A language that allows subject pronouns to be omitted (e.g., Polish, Spanish).
What is the difference between wh-fronting and wh-in-situ? begynn å lære		Wh-fronting moves the wh-word to the front of the sentence (e.g., English "What did you buy?"), while wh-in-situ leaves it in place (e.g., Mandarin "Nǐ mǎi le shénme?").
What is an example of a head-initial language? begynn å lære		English.
What is an example of a head-final language? begynn å lære		Japanese.
How does Polish mark the subject and object in a sentence? begynn å lære		Through case marking (nominative for subject, accusative for object).
How does Japanese mark the subject and object in a sentence? begynn å lære		Through particles (e.g., "-ga" for subject, "-o" for object).
What is the word order in a typical English sentence? begynn å lære		SVO (Subject-Verb-Object).
What is the word order in a typical Japanese sentence? begynn å lære		SOV (Subject-Object-Verb).
What is the word order in a typical Arabic sentence? begynn å lære		VSO (Verb-Subject-Object).
What is the word order in a typical Polish sentence? begynn å lære		Flexible, but often SVO (e.g., "Jan zjadł jabłko" or "Jabłko zjadł Jan").
What is do-support in English questions? begynn å lære		The use of the auxiliary "do" to form questions (e.g., "Did you see it?").
How do Polish wh-questions differ from English wh-questions? begynn å lære		Polish does not use do-support or subject-auxiliary inversion (e.g., "Co kupiłeś?" vs. "What did you buy?").
What is V2 (verb-second) word order? begynn å lære		A word order rule where the finite verb appears in the second position in main clauses (e.g., German "Hast du den Film gesehen?").
What is the role of case marking in languages like Polish and Russian? begynn å lære		Case marking indicates grammatical roles (e.g., subject, object) independently of word order, allowing for flexible word order.
How does French form yes/no questions? begynn å lære		Through subject-verb inversion (e.g., "As-tu vu ce film?") or using "est-ce que" (e.g., "Est-ce que tu as vu ce film?").
What is Universal Grammar (UG)? begynn å lære		A theory proposing that human languages are constrained by shared cognitive principles, including general properties and parameters of variation.
What are the two main components of Universal Grammar? begynn å lære		Principles (general properties) and parameters (points of variation).
What is an example of a parameter in UG? begynn å lære		Null-subject vs. non-null-subject.
Why might the null-subject parameter be useful? begynn å lære		It helps classify languages based on whether they allow subject omission (e.g., Polish/Spanish vs. English).
Why might the null-subject parameter be too simple? begynn å lære		It ignores nuances like context-specific null subjects or discourse-pragmatic factors.
What is contrastive pragmatics? begynn å lære		The comparison of how languages express requests, apologies, refusals, compliments, disagreement, politeness, and social hierarchy.
What are the key concepts in contrastive pragmatics? begynn å lære		Politeness hierarchy, face orientation, formulaic routines, contextualization cues.
What is politeness hierarchy? begynn å lære		How strongly a language reflects age, rank, status, or institutional role.
What is face in pragmatics? begynn å lære		A person’s public social self-image, including positive face (desire to be liked) and negative face (desire for autonomy).
What is an example of a positive face threat? begynn å lære		Criticism or disagreement (e.g., "Nobody liked your idea").
What is an example of a negative face threat? begynn å lære		Requests or orders (e.g., "You must help me today").
What are formulaic routines? begynn å lære		Fixed or semi-fixed expressions for socially recognizable situations (e.g., "Itadakimasu" in Japanese before eating).
How do European and Asian pragmatics differ in refusal? begynn å lære		European contexts often use explicit but softened refusals, while Asian contexts often use indirect, delayed, or implied refusals.
What is a parallel corpus? begynn å lære		A corpus containing texts in two or more languages that are translations of each other, aligned at the sentence or word level.
What are the four types of corpora? begynn å lære		Monolingual, multilingual, parallel, comparable.
What is an example of a parallel corpus? begynn å lære		Europarl (European Parliament proceedings in 20+ languages).
What are the key features of parallel corpora? begynn å lære		Sentence- or word-level alignment, high-quality translations, used in linguistic analysis and machine translation.
What are the applications of parallel corpora? begynn å lære		Machine translation, domain-specific translation, cross-lingual information retrieval, bilingual lexicon extraction.
What are alignment challenges in parallel corpora? begynn å lære		Ambiguity, structural differences, idiomatic expressions, omissions/additions.
What can be analyzed in parallel corpora? begynn å lære		Translation shifts, syntactic differences, lexical choices, cultural nuances, idiomatic expressions, semantic scope.
Contrastive linguistics is primarily concerned with: begynn å lære		Comparing two or more languages systematically
What is NOT a typical goal of contrastive linguistics? begynn å lære		Discovering universal cognitive principles through language comparison
A contrastive analysis of English and Polish can be conducted at: begynn å lære		Multiple linguistic levels simultaneously
Which area of applied linguistics benefits directly from contrastive analysis? begynn å lære		All of the above
A learner says: “I have 20 years.” instead of “I am 20 years old.” This error is most likely due to: begynn å lære		Transfer from the first language
Phonology studies: begynn å lære		Sound systems
A phoneme is: begynn å lære		The smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning
Which pair demonstrates a phonemic contrast? begynn å lære		bat / pat
The term phonemic inventory refers to: begynn å lære		All sounds that distinguish meaning in a language
Which English consonant cluster would likely cause difficulty for speakers of languages with stricter phonotactic constraints? begynn å lære		/spl/
The fact that English permits street but some languages do not permit similar clusters is an example of: begynn å lære		Phonotactic constraints
A language that does not permit word-initial consonant clusters may adapt English school as: begynn å lære		eschool
Which statement is considered a phonological universal? begynn å lære		All languages distinguish vowels and consonants.
The contrast between ship and sheep illustrates: begynn å lære		Phonemic vowel distinction
A morpheme is: begynn å lære		The smallest meaningful or grammatical unit
Which language type relies heavily on word order and has little inflection? begynn å lære		Analytic
Which language is classified as predominantly agglutinative? begynn å lære		Turkish
Which language is presented as a synthetic/fusional language? begynn å lære		Polish
Which of the following is a free morpheme? begynn å lære		dog
Which of the following is a bound morpheme? begynn å lære		re-
In the word unhappiness, the prefix un- is: begynn å lære		Derivational
In the word walked, the suffix -ed is: begynn å lære		Inflectional
Examine the following forms: English: unhappiness, Polish: nie-szczęś-liwość begynn å lære		Both contain derivational morphemes that create new lexical meanings.
Which statement about agglutinative languages is most accurate? begynn å lære		Each morpheme tends to express one grammatical function.
Which process is illustrated by: unhappy, rewrite, nieprawda? begynn å lære		Prefixation
The English expression fan-bloody-tastic is an example of: begynn å lære		Infixation
A borrowing is: begynn å lære		A linguistic item transferred from one language to another
Which factor frequently motivates borrowing? begynn å lære		All of the above
Which example shows relatively low integration into Polish? begynn å lære		deadline
Which example shows high grammatical integration into Polish? begynn å lære		supportem
The Polish verb backupować demonstrates: begynn å lære		Morphological adaptation of a borrowing
The expression: “Zrobimy później research.” (We’ll do research later.) is best classified as: begynn å lære		Hybrid construction
The expression: “Zboostować post” (To boost a post) illustrates: begynn å lære		Aspectual prefixation applied to a borrowing
Lexicalization refers to: begynn å lære		Encoding conceptual meaning into lexical items
According to Talmy, lexicalization involves: begynn å lære		Compressing meaning into linguistic form
Which pair best illustrates lexicalization differences in motion? begynn å lære		run out / wybiec
English commonly expresses aspect through: begynn å lære		Periphrastic constructions
Polish commonly lexicalizes aspect through: begynn å lære		Verb prefixes
Which pair best illustrates aspectual lexicalization in Polish? begynn å lære		czytać / przeczytać
English often encodes path in: begynn å lære		Particles
Which language is classified as predominantly SOV? begynn å lære		Japanese
Which language is presented as having relatively flexible word order? begynn å lære		Polish
Compare: English: I am going home. Polish: Idę do domu. This contrast illustrates: begynn å lære		Null-subject parameter
A language that allows omission of subject pronouns is: begynn å lære		Pro-drop
Which language from the course is NOT pro-drop? begynn å lære		English
Which sentence illustrates wh-fronting? begynn å lære		What did John buy?
Compare: English: What did you buy? Mandarin: You bought what? This contrast illustrates: begynn å lære		Different question-formation strategies
Contrastive pragmatics investigates differences in: begynn å lære		All of the above
A lecturer says: “Could you perhaps send me the document when you have a moment?” This utterance primarily demonstrates: begynn å lære		Negative politeness
A researcher wants to compare English originals and Polish translations sentence by sentence. Which resource is most appropriate? begynn å lære		Parallel corpus
The use of Japanese titles such as -san, -sensei, and -sama primarily signals: begynn å lære		Honorific and social relationships
Which statement best characterizes a common contrast between many European and East Asian politeness systems discussed in class? begynn å lære		East Asian languages tend to place greater emphasis on hierarchy, honorifics, and indirectness.
A Korean student uses a more formal speech level when speaking to an older lecturer than when speaking to a classmate. This is primarily an example of: begynn å lære		Register variation based on social hierarchy
Which scenario best illustrates the concept of face orientation? begynn å lære		Avoiding public criticism in order to protect another person’s social image.

Contrastive Linguistics

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